Tattooing and Cross-Cultural Research, Part 2: Outline of Basic Steps

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Overview

Class size: Any
Level(s): IV
Source: Submitted by HRAF member


Learning Objectives

Does the exercise compare 2 or more cultures? Yes
Subject selection: Single subject specified by teacher
Subjects/OCMS, if applicable: Tattooing
Region selection: pre-selected
Region, if applicable: Various
Culture selection: Student chooses from pre-selected list
Cultures/OWCs, if applicable:
Samples: PSF, SCCS

Classroom Guide

Instructions for navigating eHRAF included? No
Assignments for students to complete in groups? No
Assignments for students to complete on their own? Yes
Instructions for Microfiche version? No
 

William Divale, Department of Anthropology, York College (City University of New York)

Go to: Part 1: Syllabus | Part 2: Outline of Basic Steps | Part 3: Outline of a Cross-Cultural Study Paper | Part 4: Outline of a Conference Paper

Part 2: Outline of Basic Steps

1. Select the Research Topic

2. Construct a Propositional Inventory

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Following are the collected hypotheses of students from York College.

I put any comments I made after the hypotheses in italics and bold print.

Some of the hypotheses are testable using pre-coded variables that were made by other researchers and published for the standard cross-cultural sample. You can find them by Variable Number, e.g., V120, V238, etc. in the Pre-Coded Variables book.

Some of the hypotheses are okay, but just not testable using typical ethnographic data.

Propositional Inventory by Student A

Ceniceros, Salvador. 1998. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. Aug: Vol. 186. P. 503-504.

Hypothesis: 
A very strong relationship exists between the number and types of tattoos and body piercing a person has and their involvement in Russian Roulette.

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. It also carries no explanation value.

Duncan, David F. 1989. MMPI Scores of Tattooed and Non-Tattooed Prisoners. Psychological Reports. 65: 685-686.

Hypothesis: 
No relationship exists between the presence of a tattoo and the presence of a personality disorder.

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. The hyp. is interesting but just not testable with hraf.

Grumet, Gerald W. 1983. Psychodynamic implications of tattoos. Amer. J. Orthopsychiat. 53:482-492.

Hypothesis: 
If we study individuals with tattoos then we can gain insight into his/her personality.

We may be able to test a variety of this, such as, “Societies that have tattooing should favor certain personality traits.”

Hage, Per., Hararv, Fran L, Milicie, Boika. 1996. Tattooing, Gender, and Social Stratification in Micro-Polynesia. J. Amer. Royal Anthro. Ins. 2: 335-350.

Hypotheses:

1. Differences in tattooing were associated with intrinsic differences in rank.

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

2. Where hypergamy led to the superior rank of sisters over brothers and a sacred sister complex, females were either not tattooed or were less tattooed than males.

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

3. Chiefly sanctity was associated with restrictions on tattooing. /in chiefly diarchies the scared ruler was untattooable. While the secular, executive ruler was tattooable and tattooed.

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

4. The combination of 2) and 3) produced non-tattooed couples at the head of chiefly.

We may be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

Houghton, Steven. Durkin, Kevin. Carroll, Annemaree. 1995. Children’s and Adolescent’s Awareness of the Physical and Mental Health Risks Associated with Tattooing: A Focus Group Study. Adolescence. 30: 971-988.

Hypothesis: 
Children’s awareness of the physical and mental health risks are associated with the increasing practice of tattooing.

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

Roe, Allan. Howell, Robert J. Payne, 1. Reed. 1974. Comparison of prison inmates with and without Juvenile Records. Psychological Reports. June. Vol. 34. P. 13151319.

Hypothesis: 
In general, the more criminal involvement a youngster and the longer the periods of incarcerations prior to 18, the higher should be the expectation of continued involvement in crime.

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

Sanders, Clinton. 1988. Marks of Mischief Becoming and Being Tattooed. Jan. Vol. 16. No. 4. P. 395 – 432.

Hypothesis: ??

Sanders, Clinton R. 1991. Memorial Decoration: Women, Tattooing, and the Meanings of Body Alteration. Michigan Quarterly Review. 30: 146-157.

Hypothesis: 
Tattoos have meanings across cultures.

I don’t think this statement accurately reflects the meaning of the above article. I suggest you read the article again and try to more accurately abstract the hypotheses. I suspect this paper will have some interesting hypotheses.

Singh, Deverdra. Bronstad, P. Mathew. 1997. Sex Differences in the Anatomical Locations of Human Body Scarification and Tattooing as a Function of Pathogen Prevalence. Evolution and Human Behavior. Vol. 18. P. 403-416.

Hypothesis: 
As pathogen seventy increases, so should permanent markings of body areas that are attended for evaluating attractiveness and mate quality.

We will be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

Tannenbaum, Nicola. 1987. Tattoos: Invulnerability and Power in Shan Cosmology. Amer. Ethnologist. 14: 693-711.

Hypothesis:

1. There is a relationship between Buddhism and animism.

Not related to tattoos.

2. Tattoos are used as symbols of power and social stratification in Shan culture.

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

Propositional Inventory by Student B

1) There is an association between erotic piercing and homosexuality, sadomasochism, bondage, fetishism, and tattoos (Burich, 1983).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

2) By reviewing the history and practice of tattooing there will be psychologically relevant themes, which will provide analysts with additional diagnostic information (Grumet, 1983).

This is why we are doing this project. What else does Grumet say?

3) Tattooing is an attempt to acquire identity (Edgerton, Dingman, 1963).

We may be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

4) Prostitutes who have tattoos do so because of strong masochist-exhibitionistic drives (Parry, 1934).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

5) They (tattoos) can often be understood self-constructive and adorning efforts rather than prematurely subsumed as mutilatory and destructive acts (Martin, 1997).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

6) Tattooed prisoners would be lower on sex guilt than non-tattooed prisoners (Mosher, et. al, 1967).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

7) Tattooed prisoners would have more feminine interests than the non-tattooed prisoners (Mosher et. al, 1967).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

8) In our culture persons who have certain types of self-concepts will be more likely to tattoo themselves than persons with other self-concepts (Burma, 1959).

We should be able to test a variety of this hypothesis using pre-coded variables, such as societies with tattoos will be of a certain type, e.g., collective, or favor certain personality traits.

9) Inmates with juvenile records were more likely to be tattooed (Roe et. al, 1974).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

10) Psychological analysis shows that deep, unrevealed motives, particularly sexual ones, were responsible for the call of the tattoo (Bromberg, 1972).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

11) Tattooing fulfills a psychic need in the ego development of those persons who run into difficulty synthesizing their identity (Hamburger, 1963).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

Propositional Inventory by Student C

1) There is a significant correlation between the presence of tattoos and delinquency (Burma 1959; Measey 1971; Verberne, 1969).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

2) Extraversion and introversion are products of cortical arousal. (Eysenck and Eysenck 1967).

Not related to tattoos.

3) People with tattoos are more likely to be extraverted than introverted. (John H. Copes and Graig J. Forsyth, 1993).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

4) Tattooed subjects were more often group dependent, more rebellious, emotional, and active (Verberne, 1969).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

5) There were a significant correlation between extroversion and delinquency. (Eysenck, 1977).

Not related to tattoos.

6) Delinquency might be a result (as is the tattoo) of the extrovert’s low arousal level and their need for stimulation, instead of being caused by a personality disorder (Eysenck, 1977).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

7) Tattooed female Borstal inmates were more criminal in their attitudes, showed more aggressive behavior, scored higher on tension and anxiety, and were more masculine in their sexual orientation and behavior than were nontattooed girls (Taylor, 1968).

We may be able to test a variety of this hypothesis using pre-coded variables, such as female dominance would be more prevalent in societies where females are tattooed.

8) Tattooed prisoners showed significantly higher barrier scores on the Holtzman Inkblot Test and lower body cathexis scores on the Secord-Jourard Body Cathexis Scale (Mosher, et al., 1967).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

9) There is a 90% rejection rate for neuropsychiatric difficulties at an induction center among men with tattoos of LOVE and TRUE LOVE inscribed across their fingers. (Ferguson-Rayport et al., 1955).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

10) In Western culture pattern there might be a greater likelihood of tattooed persons having an abnormal personality than persons who are not tattooed (Wells, 1964).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

11) Over-compensation for homosexual inclinations might be one underlying mechanism in the tattooed group (Mckerracher, Watson, 1969).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

12) Psychopathic or social or emotional maladjustment was significantly higher among the tattooed than the non-tattooed (____, 1969).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

13) Extremely unstable social histories and physical violence?s were recorded among the offenses committed by the tattooed men than the non-tattooed (Mckerracher et al., 1966).

We may be able to test a variety of this hypothesis using pre-coded variables, such as societies with tattoos are more warlike.

14) “Becoming tattoo is a highly social act” that is experimented with close associates (Sanders, 1998: 404, 406).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

15) Tattoos identify males in a tribe (Bonierbale-Branchereau and Valero, 1986).

This statement is not clear. What is meant by “identify males.”

Propositional Inventory by Student D

1) Tattoos found on a group of men admitted to the State Penitentiary (Haines and Hufftnan,1958.)

This is not a hypothesis; it has no predictive value, e.g., if A, then B.

2) In our culture, persons who have certain types of self concepts will be more likely to tattoo themselves than persons with other self concepts.” (Bruma, 1959)

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

3) A new and novel addition to correctional institution rehabilitative program; notably the plastic surgery intervention to reduce or eliminate disfiguring features whether in the form of scars, tattoos, or structural abnormalities” (Holt, et. al, 1967).

This is not a hypothesis; it has no predictive value, e.g., if A, then B.

4) A flaw at some stage of ego formation might be revealed by a study of age at onset of tattooing, as well as the nature of the tattoos themselves (Hamburger, 1963)

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

5) Prisoners who were tattooed under the influence of a friend and were usually intoxicated (Walter, 1935).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

Propositional Inventory by Student F

Tattooed prisoners would have:

1) Higher barrier scores on the Holtzman Inkblot Test

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

2) Give more body associations to Secord’s homonymn Word Association Test

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

3) Feel more positively about their body on the Secord-Jourard Body Cathexis Scale

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

4) Be lower on sex-guilt

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

5) Have more feminine interests than the non-tattooed prisoners (Mosher, Oliver and Dolgan 1969).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

6) A significant amount of tattooing occurs among delinquents (Burma, 1959).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

7) Tattoos can serve as marks of disaffiliation with law?abiding society and of affiliation with outlaw subcultures (Grumet, 1983).

This hypothesis is probably not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

Propositional Inventory by Student G

1. There is no real deviance with prisoners that have tattoos compared to prisoners that do not have tattoos (Duncan, 1989).

This hypothesis is probably not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

2) Youngsters involved in criminal activity and incarcerated for longer periods of time before age 18 have a higher expectation to continue in crime when they get older (Howell, 1974).

This hypothesis is probably not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

3) Tattooing and body piercing reflects or predicts self-injury or violence towards others (Ceniceros, 1998).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables. Perhaps societies that have tattoos will have more violence, feuding, etc.?

4) Studying people with tattoos provides a basis to learn about their personality (Grumet, 1983).

This is an assumption of our project, but not really worthwhile as a hypothesis.

3. Derive Hypothesis

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Hypothesis A

Tattooing is a painful process. Societies tend to be consistent, so one would expect that if pain is inflicted in one realm, it will be inflicted in others, such as corporal punishment of children.

Cross-Cultural: Thus, if the above is true, one could expect that societies with tattooing will also tend to have higher corporal punishment of boys and girls.

Table 1. Cross-tabulation of Corporal Punishment of Boys in Early Childhood and Tattooing.

cc_tec1
cc_tec2Notice above that the societies with lower levels of corporal punishment for boys (1-5) seem fairly evenly distributed between having tattooing present and absent. However, the societies with high levels of corporal punishment (6-9) almost always have tattooing. This suggests that there is a trend consistent with the hypothesis. The statistics that test for a linear association are shown in “Symmetric Measures.” Since the variables are ordinal, the appropriate measures of association are gamma (.463) and Spearman’s correlation (.328). The coefficients of association are moderate and indicate a positive association (the more corporal punishment, the more tattooing is present. The significance levels are .058 and .076 respectively. Although these significance levels are marginally significant, we are entitled to halve the probabilities since the association is in the directed predicted. Thus, the probability that the results are due to chance is .029  (29 chances out of 1000) using gamma and .038 (38 chances out of 1000) using Spearman’s rho. Thus with regard to corporal punishment of boys we can reject the null hypothesis that the results are due to sampling error, and we accept the theoretical hypothesis that tattooing and corporal punishment of boys are positively related.

cc_tec3

cc_tec4Notice above that the societies with lower levels of corporal punishment for girls (1-5) seem fairly evenly distributed between having tattooing present and absent. However, the societies with high levels of corporal punishment (6-9) almost always have tattooing. This suggests that there is a trend consistent with the hypothesis. The statistics that test for a linear association are shown in “Symmetric Measures.” Since the variables are ordinal, the appropriate measures of association are gamma (.506) and Spearman’s correlation (.367). The coefficients of association are moderate and indicate a positive association (the more corporal punishment, the more tattooing is present. The significance levels are .037 and .050 respectively. We are entitled to halve the probabilities since the association is in the directed predicted. Thus, the probability that the results are due to chance is .015  (15 chances out of 1000) using gamma and .019 (19 chances out of 1000) using Spearman’s rho. Thus with regard to corporal punishment of girls we can reject the null hypothesis that the results are due to sampling error, and we accept the theoretical hypothesis that tattooing and corporal punishment of  girls are positively related.

Hypothesis B

1.Tattoos are associated with less sexual guilt.

Cross-Cultural: If the above is true, one would expect that societies with tattooing would have more sexual expression for adolescent boys.

Sexual Expression in Adolescent boys and girls  – Encouragement of sexual behavior, taking into account its frequency, emotional intensity, importance, and variety (including range in partners) in adolescence.  Heterosexual intercourse is the principal criterion, but heterosexual foreplay, masturbation, homosexuality, sexual jokes and exposing the genitals were also considered

Table 2. Cross-tab Between Tattooing and Adolescent Boys Sexual Expression

cc_tec5

cc_tec6The results in Table 2 indicated a very weak association between the presence of tattooing and boys sexual expression.  If one looks at the Tattoo Present column, there does not appear to be any pattern between tattooing and sexual expression.  The measure of the strength of association, Gamma is very low (-.235) and the probability the results are due to random sampling error is .379 or 379 chances out of 100.  Thus we have to accept the null hypothesis that these two variables are not related and the hypothesis is not supported.

2.Tattoos are associated with less sexual guilt.

Cross-Cultural: If the above is true, one would expect that societies with tattooing would have more sexual expression for adolescent boys.

Table 3.  T-Tests Between Tattooing and Sexual Non-restraint in Adolescents

Sexual Non-Restraint Tattoo (Absent)
Mean
N Tattoo (Present)
Mean
N T-Score Significance
In Adolescent Boys 7.20 10 5.59 22 1.672 .105
In Adolescent Girls 6.70 10 5.41 22 1.263 .216

Range of Sexual Non-Restraint:  1=Strictly Prohibited to 9=Condoned & not punished

The higher score on sexual non-restraint means that non-restraint is condoned, e.g., more sexual expression is allowed.  For both adolescent boys and girls the scores are higher when tattooing is absent (7.20 for boys and 6.70 for girls).  Sexual expression scores are lower when tattooing is present.  This goes in the opposite direction of the hypothesis.  The differences in means between the two groups is also not significant (.105 for boys and .216 for girls), which means that the differences in means between the tattooed and non-tattooed societies could be the result of chance sampling error.  Thus we have to accept the null hypothesis.

4. Index the Variables

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Example of text with references to tattooing from the Copper Inuit Culture File in the eHRAF World Cultures database.

cc_techniques_tattooing_image

5. Construct Dummy Tables

6. Choose a Culture Sample

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Overlap of cultures names with the OWC Code* from HRAF’s Probability Sample Files (PSF)** and the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample.

Student A

SCCS # Culture Name OWC Code
004 Lozi FQ09
007 Bemba FQ05
012 Ganda FK07
013 Mbuti (Pygmies) FO04
016 Tiv FF57
019 Ashanti (Twi) FE12

Student B

021 Wolof MS30
026 Hausa MS12
028 Azande FO07
034 Masai FL12
036 Somali MO04

Student C

037 Amhara MP05
052 Lapps EP04
057 Kurd MA11
069 Garo AR05
076 Siamese AO07
079 Andamanese AZ02

Student D

085 Iban OC06
087 Toraja OG11
091 Aranda OI08
094 Kapauku OJ29
098 Trobriands OL06

Student E

100 Tikopia OT11
109 Trukese OR19
112 Ifugao OA19
116 Koreans AA01
121 Chukchee RY02

Student F

124 Copper Eskimo ND08
127 Saulteaux (Ojibwa) NG06
138 Klamath NR10
142 Pawnee NQ18
158 Cuna SB05

Student G

163 Yanomamo SQ18
165 Saramacca SR08
167 Cubeo (Tucano) SQ19
172 Aymara SF05
181 Cayua (Guarani) SM04

Editor’s Note regarding OWC and PSF

*Outline of World Cultures (OWC)

HRAF indexes the information in its collection by culture (or tradition) and subject. OWC is an acronym for the Outline of World Cultures, a systematic listing of the cultures of the world. An OWC code or OWC culture code is a four-character alphanumeric identification derived from the classification scheme presented in the Outline of World Cultures (OWC), developed by George P. Murdock more than 50 years ago. Each distinct culture in the list of cultures covered in eHRAF is assigned an OWC code, and text on that culture has been indexed using that OWC. The first letter of each OWC code represents a region of the world.

A=Asia
E=Europe
M=Middle East and northern Africa
N=North America
O=Oceania
S=South America

For example, the Santal is given the OWC code AW42 which identifies this culture as being located in Asia (A) and India (W). A printed version of the OWC (6th revised edition, 1983) is available from HRAF. In the eHRAF Collection of Ethnography the OWC for the cultures in eHRAF can be found in Browse Cultures. Not every culture in the OWC is in the eHRAF Collection of Ethnography.

**Probability Sample File

 The 60-culture Probability Sample, now complete in eHRAF, was designed by HRAF to provide primary descriptive information on a representative sample of the world’s traditional and peasant cultures. After establishing a list of cultures that met certain criteria for eligibility, one case was chosen randomly from each of 60 culture areas. Among the criteria for eligibility were the ethnographer’s length of stay in the field, knowledge of the native language, and number of pages of ethnography.  This sample is used for both teaching and systematic cross-cultural comparisons. The PSF cultures are located in the eHRAF Collection of Ethnography database.

7. Code the Data

Data Entry Sheet

Tattooing
1. Absent
2. Present

Sex of Individuals Tattooed
1. males only
2. males and females
3. females only

Age When Tattooed
Tattooed at Puberty or initiation  0=No 1=Present
Tattooed for War or Hunting Success  0=No 1=Present

Rank Differences of Tattooed Persons
1. No differences in rank
2. High ranked individual are not tattooed
3. High ranked individuals only are tattooed

Objects that are tattooed (More than one may apply)
Object1: Designs or markings  0=No 1=Yes
Object2: Animals 0=No 1=Yes

Location of tattoos (More than one location may apply)
Locate1: Face 0=No 1=Yes
Locate2: Hands 0=No 1=Yes
Locate3: Arms 0=No 1=Yes
Locate4: Chest 0=No 1=Yes
Locate5: Legs 0=No 1=Yes
Locate6: Feet 0=No 1=Yes

Emic Significance of Tattoos
1. Given at a rite of passage ceremony (Birth, Initiation, Marriage, etc.)
2. Given at some other ceremony
3. Not associated with a ceremony

Purpose of Tattoos
Decoration 0=No 1=Present
Magical 0=No 1=Present
Marker of Membership or Rank 0=No 1=Present

Data Coding Sheet

Society Name: ____________________________________________

HRAF’s OWC Code: _________SCCR No.:_______

Tattooing
1. present ________________
2. absent _________________

Sex of Individuals Tattooed
1. males only
_______________________________________________________

   2. males and females
_______________________________________________________
3. females only _______________________________________________________

Age When Tattooed
1. Puberty or at initiation _______________________________________________________
2. Marriage ______________________________________________________
3. Other (explain in detail) _______________________________________________________

Rank Differences of Tattooed Persons
1. No differences in rank _______________________________________________________
2. High ranked individual are not tattooed ______________________________________________________
3. High ranked individuals only are tattooed ______________________________________________________

Objects that are tattooed (More than one may apply)
1. Designs or markings _______________________________________________________
2. Animals _______________________________________________________
3. Spirits _______________________________________________________
4. Anthropomorphic characters _______________________________________________________

Location of tattoos (More than one location may apply)
1. Face _______________________________________________________
2. Hands _______________________________________________________
3. Arms _______________________________________________________
4. Chest _______________________________________________________
5. Legs _______________________________________________________
6. Feet _______________________________________________________
7. Other (Explain) _______________________________________________________

Emic Significance of Tattoos
1. Given at a rite of passage ceremony (Birth, Initiation, Marriage, etc.) _______________________________________________________
2. Given at some other ceremony _______________________________________________________
3. Not associated with a ceremony _______________________________________________________

Purpose of Tattoos
1. For decoration only _______________________________________________________
2. Magical purpose _______________________________________________________
3. Marker of membership or rank _______________________________________________________

8. Tabulate the Data

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Key

The Key explains the values in Table 1; Table 2; Table 3; Table 4; Table 5; and Table 6

# Name Label Values
1 SCCS Standard Cross-Cultural Sample Number None
2 OWC HRAF’s OWC (Outline of World Culture) Code None
3 SOCNAME SCCS Name None
4 FOCYR SCCS Focus Year None
5 REG Geographical Region 1=North America; 2=South America; 3=Europe;
4=Middle East & North Africa; 5=Africa;
6=Russia; 7=Asia; 8=Oceania
6 TAT Tattooing 0=Absent; 1=Present
7 SEX Sex of Individuals Tattooed 1=Males only; 2=Females only; 3=Both sexes
8 PUB Tattooed at Puberty or Initiation 0=No; 1=Yes
9 WAR Tattoed for War or Hunt Success 0=No; 1=Yes
10 RANK Rank Differences of Tattooed Persons 1=No Difference in Rank; 2=High Ranks not Tattooed;
3=High Ranks Tattooed
11 O1 Tattoos are Geometric Designs or Markings 0=No; 1=Yes
12 O2 Tattoos are of Animals 0=No; 1=Yes
13 L1 Tattoos are on Face 0=No; 1=Yes
14 L2 Tattoos are on Hands 0=No; 1=Yes
15 L3 Tattoos are on Arms 0=No; 1=Yes
16 L4 Tattoos are on Chest or Torso 0=No; 1=Yes
15 L5 Tattoos are on Legs 0=No; 1=Yes
16 L6 Tattoos are on Feet 0=No; 1=Yes
17 EMIC Emic Significance of Tattoos 1=Rites of Passage; 2=Other Ceremony;
3=Not Associated with a Ceremony
20 DEC Purpose of Tattoos: Decoration 0=No; 1=Yes
21 MAGIC Purpose of Tattoos: Magical 0=No; 1=Yes
22 MBR Purpose of Tattoos: Membership 0=No; 1=Yes
23 V42 Elimination-Encouragement of Control in Childhood 1= 3-5 Years; 2= greater than 18 Months;
3= Less than 12 Months;
4= Greater than 6 Months; 5= Less than 6 Months
24 V441 Teasing: Early Boys (Childhood) None
25 V442 Teasing: Early Girls (Childhood) None
26 V443 Teasing: Late Boys (Childhood) None
27 V444 Teasing: Late Girls (Childhood) None
28 V445 Scolding: Early Boys None
29 V446 Scolding: Early Girls None
30 V447 Scolding: Late Boys None
31 V448 Scolding: Late Girls None
32 V453 Corporal Punishment: Early Boys None
33 V454 Corporal Punishment: Early Girls None
34 V455 Corporal Punishment: Late Boys None
35 V456 Corporal Punishment: Late Girls None
36 SCSCO Scarification Score None
37 FASC Facial Scaring 0=Absent; 1=Present
38 BDSC Body Scaring 0=Absent; 1=Present
39 TATSCO Tattooing Score None
40 FATAT Face Tattoos 0=Absent; 1=Present
41 ARMTAT Arm Tattoos 0=Absent; 1=Present
42 LEGTAT Leg Tattoos 0=Absent; 1=Present
43 TORTAT Torso Tattoos 0=Absent; 1=Present
44 PSCO Piercing Score None
45 EARP Ear Piercing 0=Absent; 1=Present
46 LIPP Lip Piercing 0=Absent; 1=Present
47 NOSEP Nose Piercing 0=Absent; 1=Present
48 NAVEP Navel Piercing 0=Absent; 1=Present
49 TEEDEF Teeth Deformation 0=Absent; 1=Present
50 GEMUSC Genital Mutilation Score None
51 CIRC Circumcision 0=Absent; 1=Present
52 CLITO Clitoridectomy 0=Absent; 1=Present
53 INFIB Infibulation 0=Absent; 1=Present
54 CASTR Castration 0=Absent; 1=Present
55 CRDEF Cranial Deformation 0=Absent; 1=Present
56 AMPUT Amputation of Body Parts 0=Absent; 1=Present
57 FEEDEF Feet Deformation 0=Absent; 1=Present
58 TATSCO2 Tattooing Score Revised 0=Absent; 1=Present

Table 1

SCCS OWC SOCNAME

FOCYR

REG

TAT

SEX

PUB

WAR

RANK

O1

O2

L1

L2

L3

L4

L5

L6

   4 FQ09 Lozi

1900

5

1

2

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

   7 FQ05 Bemba

1897

5

1

3

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

   8 FN17 Nyakyusa

1934

5

  12 FK07 Ganda

1875

5

0

  13 FO04 Mbuti

1950

5

1

1

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

  16 FF57 Tiv

1920

5

1

2

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

0

  17 FF26 Ibo

1935

5

  19 FE12 Ashanti

1895

5

0

  21 MS30 Wolof

1950

4

1

3

1

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

  26 MS12 Hausa

1900

4

1

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

1

1

1

1

  28 FO07 Azande

1905

5

1

2

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

  34 FL12 Masai

1900

5

1

2

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

  36 MO04 Somali

1900

4

1

3

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

  37 MP05 Amhara

1953

4

1

3

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

  52 EP04 Lapps

1950

3

0

  57 MA11 Kurd

1951

4

1

2

0

0

2

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

1

  69 AR05 Garo

1955

7

1

2

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

  76 AO07 Siamese

1955

7

0

  79 AZ02 Andamanese

1860

7

1

1

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

  85 OC06 Iban

1950

8

1

2

0

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

  87 OG11 Toradja

1910

8

0

  91 OI08 Aranda

1896

8

1

2

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

1

1

0

0

  94 OJ29 Kapauku

1955

8

0

  98 OL06 Trobrianders

1914

8

0

 100 OT11 Tikopia

1930

8

1

2

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

 109 OR19 Trukese

1947

8

1

2

1

0

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

0

 112 OA19 Ifugao

1910

8

1

1

0

1

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

 116 AA01 Koreans

1947

7

1

2

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

 121 RY02 Chukchee

1900

6

1

2

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

 124 ND08 Copper Eskimo

1915

1

1

2

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

 127 NG06 Saulteaux

1930

1

1

0

1

0

1

1

0

 138 NR10 Klamath

1860

1

1

2

0

1

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

 142 NQ18 Pawnee

1867

1

1

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

 158 SB05 Cuna (Tule)

1927

2

1

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

 163 SQ18 Yanomamo

1965

2

1

3

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

 165 SR08 Saramacca

1928

2

0

 167 SQ19 Cubeo (Tucano)

1939

2

0

 172 SF05 Aymara

1940

2

0

 181 SM04 Cayua

1890

2

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

Table 2

SCCS OWC SOCNAME

EMIC

DEC

MAGIC

MBR

V42

V441

V442

V443

V444

   4 FQ09 Lozi

0

1

1

6

6

   7 FQ05 Bemba

6

6

6

6

   8 FN17 Nyakyusa

7

7

  12 FK07 Ganda

2

6

6

6

6

  13 FO04 Mbuti

1

0

1

1

9

9

9

9

  16 FF57 Tiv

3

0

0

1

3

9

9

9

9

  17 FF26 Ibo

7

7

7

7

  19 FE12 Ashanti

2

  21 MS30 Wolof

1

1

0

0

9

  26 MS12 Hausa

0

0

0

5

7

7

7

7

  28 FO07 Azande

0

0

1

  34 FL12 Masai

1

1

0

9

9

9

9

  36 MO04 Somali

3

1

0

0

  37 MP05 Amhara

1

1

1

1

2

7

7

  52 EP04 Lapps

5

5

5

5

  57 MA11 Kurd

1

1

1

1

5

6

6

6

6

  69 AR05 Garo

3

0

0

0

5

9

9

9

9

  76 AO07 Siamese

1

  79 AZ02 Andamanese

1

1

0

1

  85 OC06 Iban

1

0

1

  87 OG11 Toradja

9

9

9

9

  91 OI08 Aranda
  94 OJ29 Kapauku

3

3

3

6

6

  98 OL06 Trobrianders

4

4

4

4

 100 OT11 Tikopia

1

1

0

0

5

5

5

5

 109 OR19 Trukese

1

1

0

0

3

10

10

10

10

 112 OA19 Ifugao

2

0

0

1

8

8

8

8

 116 AA01 Koreans

1

0

0

0

3

6

6

6

6

 121 RY02 Chukchee

2

0

1

0

3

3

6

6

 124 ND08 Copper Eskimo

3

1

0

0

7

7

7

7

 127 NG06 Saulteaux

0

1

0

6

6

6

6

 138 NR10 Klamath

2

7

7

7

7

 142 NQ18 Pawnee

0

0

1

7

7

7

7

 158 SB05 Cuna (Tule)

3

0

0

1

7

7

7

7

 163 SQ18 Yanomamo

1

0

1

0

7

7

 165 SR08 Saramacca
 167 SQ19 Cubeo (Tucano)

2

6

6

6

6

 172 SF05 Aymara

7

7

7

7

 181 SM04 Cayua

0

1

0

Table 3

SCCS OWC SOCNAME

V445

V446

V447

V448

V453

V454

V455

V456

   4 FQ09 Lozi

6

6

6

6

   7 FQ05 Bemba

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

   8 FN17 Nyakyusa

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

  12 FK07 Ganda

3

3

6

6

4

4

  13 FO04 Mbuti

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

  16 FF57 Tiv

9

9

9

9

6

6

6

6

  17 FF26 Ibo

6

6

6

6

5

5

5

5

  19 FE12 Ashanti
  21 MS30 Wolof

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

  26 MS12 Hausa

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

  28 FO07 Azande

7

7

9

9

  34 FL12 Masai

7

7

7

7

6

6

6

6

  36 MO04 Somali
  37 MP05 Amhara

7

7

9

6

  52 EP04 Lapps

3

3

3

3

1

1

1

1

  57 MA11 Kurd

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

  69 AR05 Garo

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

  76 AO07 Siamese

5

5

5

5

  79 AZ02 Andamanese

6

6

6

6

1

1

1

1

  85 OC06 Iban
  87 OG11 Toradja

4

6

4

6

3

3

3

3

  91 OI08 Aranda
  94 OJ29 Kapauku

5

5

7

7

5

5

7

7

  98 OL06 Trobrianders

7

7

7

7

4

4

4

4

 100 OT11 Tikopia

6

6

6

6

4

4

4

4

 109 OR19 Trukese

6

6

6

6

9

9

9

9

 112 OA19 Ifugao

6

6

6

6

5

5

5

5

 116 AA01 Koreans

6

6

6

6

7

7

7

7

 121 RY02 Chukchee

5

5

3

3

3

3

 124 ND08 Copper Eskimo

6

6

6

6

5

5

5

5

 127 NG06 Saulteaux

3

3

3

3

2

2

2

2

 138 NR10 Klamath

7

7

7

7

6

6

9

6

 142 NQ18 Pawnee

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

 158 SB05 Cuna (Tule)

6

6

6

6

3

3

3

3

 163 SQ18 Yanomamo

3

3

 165 SR08 Saramacca

9

9

9

9

 167 SQ19 Cubeo (Tucano)

2

3

5

7

3

3

3

3

 172 SF05 Aymara

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

 181 SM04 Cayua

Table 4

SCCS OWC SOCNAME

SCSCO

FASC

BDSC

TATSCO

FATAT

ARMTAT

LEGTAT

TORTAT

   4 FQ09 Lozi

1

0

3

1

3

0

0

0

   7 FQ05 Bemba

1

2

0

1

2

0

0

0

   8 FN17 Nyakyusa

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

  12 FK07 Ganda

1

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

  13 FO04 Mbuti

2

1

2

1

2

0

0

0

  16 FF57 Tiv

2

2

2

1

2

0

0

0

  17 FF26 Ibo

1

2

0

3

3

3

0

3

  19 FE12 Ashanti

2

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

  21 MS30 Wolof

0

0

0

1

2

0

0

0

  26 MS12 Hausa

2

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

  28 FO07 Azande

1

0

2

1

0

1

0

0

  34 FL12 Masai

1

0

2

1

3

0

0

0

  36 MO04 Somali

1

0

2

4

2

2

2

2

  37 MP05 Amhara

1

2

0

2

3

1

0

0

  52 EP04 Lapps

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

  57 MA11 Kurd

0

0

0

2

3

2

0

0

  69 AR05 Garo

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

  76 AO07 Siamese

0

0

0

1

0

2

0

0

  79 AZ02 Andamanese

2

2

2

1

0

0

0

2

  85 OC06 Iban

0

0

0

3

0

1

1

1

  87 OG11 Toradja

1

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

  91 OI08 Aranda

1

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

  94 OJ29 Kapauku

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

  98 OL06 Trobrianders

1

0

2

1

0

0

0

3

 100 OT11 Tikopia

1

3

0

4

2

2

2

2

 109 OR19 Trukese

1

0

2

3

0

2

2

3

 112 OA19 Ifugao

0

0

0

3

0

2

2

2

 116 AA01 Koreans

0

0

0

1

0

2

0

0

 121 RY02 Chukchee

0

0

0

2

2

3

0

0

 124 ND08 Copper Eskimo

1

1

0

2

3

3

0

0

 127 NG06 Saulteaux

1

0

2

3

3

2

2

0

 138 NR10 Klamath

1

0

2

3

2

1

3

0

 142 NQ18 Pawnee

1

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

 158 SB05 Cuna (Tule)

1

0

1

2

2

0

0

2

 163 SQ18 Yanomamo

1

0

2

1

2

0

0

0

 165 SR08 Saramacca

2

3

3

3

0

2

2

2

 167 SQ19 Cubeo (Tucano)

1

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

 172 SF05 Aymara

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

 181 SM04 Cayua

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Table 5

SCCS OWC SOCNAME

PSCO

EARP

LIPP

NOSEP

NAVEP

TEEDEF

GEMUSC

   4 FQ09 Lozi

1

2

0

0

0

0

0

   7 FQ05 Bemba

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

   8 FN17 Nyakyusa

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

  12 FK07 Ganda

1

0

3

0

0

0

0

  13 FO04 Mbuti

3

3

3

3

0

3

1

  16 FF57 Tiv

1

2

0

0

0

2

2

  17 FF26 Ibo

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

  19 FE12 Ashanti

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

  21 MS30 Wolof

1

3

0

0

0

0

1

  26 MS12 Hausa

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

  28 FO07 Azande

1

0

1

0

0

2

2

  34 FL12 Masai

1

2

0

0

0

2

2

  36 MO04 Somali

2

2

0

2

0

0

2

  37 MP05 Amhara

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

  52 EP04 Lapps

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

  57 MA11 Kurd

2

3

0

3

0

0

1

  69 AR05 Garo

1

2

0

0

0

0

0

  76 AO07 Siamese

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

  79 AZ02 Andamanese

1

2

0

0

0

0

0

  85 OC06 Iban

1

2

0

0

0

2

2

  87 OG11 Toradja

1

3

0

0

0

2

1

  91 OI08 Aranda

2

2

0

2

0

2

2

  94 OJ29 Kapauku

2

2

0

2

0

0

0

  98 OL06 Trobrianders

2

2

0

2

0

0

0

 100 OT11 Tikopia

2

2

0

2

0

0

1

 109 OR19 Trukese

1

2

0

0

0

0

0

 112 OA19 Ifugao

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

 116 AA01 Koreans

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

 121 RY02 Chukchee

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

 124 ND08 Copper Eskimo

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

 127 NG06 Saulteaux

2

2

0

2

0

0

0

 138 NR10 Klamath

4

2

2

2

2

0

0

 142 NQ18 Pawnee

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

 158 SB05 Cuna (Tule)

2

3

0

3

0

0

0

 163 SQ18 Yanomamo

3

2

2

2

0

0

0

 165 SR08 Saramacca

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

 167 SQ19 Cubeo (Tucano)

2

2

2

0

0

0

0

 172 SF05 Aymara

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

 181 SM04 Cayua

2

3

1

0

0

0

0

Table 6

SCCS OWC SOCNAME

CIRC

CLITO

INFIB

CASTR

CRDEF

AMPUT

FEEDEF

TATSCO2

   4 FQ09 Lozi

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

   7 FQ05 Bemba

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

   8 FN17 Nyakyusa

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

  12 FK07 Ganda

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

  13 FO04 Mbuti

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

  16 FF57 Tiv

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

1

  17 FF26 Ibo

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

1

  19 FE12 Ashanti

0

0

0

1

0

2

0

0

  21 MS30 Wolof

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

  26 MS12 Hausa

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

  28 FO07 Azande

1

0

0

1

2

0

1

  34 FL12 Masai

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

1

  36 MO04 Somali

1

0

3

0

0

0

0

1

  37 MP05 Amhara

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

1

  52 EP04 Lapps

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

  57 MA11 Kurd

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

  69 AR05 Garo

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

  76 AO07 Siamese

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

1

  79 AZ02 Andamanese

0

0

0

0

3

0

0

1

  85 OC06 Iban

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

1

  87 OG11 Toradja

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

  91 OI08 Aranda

1

3

0

0

0

1

0

0

  94 OJ29 Kapauku

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

  98 OL06 Trobrianders

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

 100 OT11 Tikopia

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

 109 OR19 Trukese

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

 112 OA19 Ifugao

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

 116 AA01 Koreans

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

 121 RY02 Chukchee

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

 124 ND08 Copper Eskimo

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

 127 NG06 Saulteaux

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

 138 NR10 Klamath

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

1

 142 NQ18 Pawnee

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

 158 SB05 Cuna (Tule)

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

1

 163 SQ18 Yanomamo

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

 165 SR08 Saramacca

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

 167 SQ19 Cubeo (Tucano)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

 172 SF05 Aymara

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

 181 SM04 Cayua

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

9. Perform the Calculations: Frequency Distribution

Show more...

TATTOOING ABSENT PRESENT
10 (27%) 27 (73%)
SEX OF THE INDIVIDUALS MALES BOTH FEMALES
4 (17.4%) 14 (60.9%) 5 (21.7%)
TATTOOED AT NO YES
Puberty or initiation 13 (54.2%) 11 (45.8%)
War or hunting success 21 (87.5%) 3 (12.5%)
RANK DIFFERENCE OF TATTOOED PERSONS NO DIFFERENCE HIGH RANK NO TATTOO HIGH RANK YES TATTOO
22 (88%) 2 (8%) 1 (4%)
WHAT OBJECTS ARE TATTOOED  NO YES
Designs or Markings 4   (16.7%) 20 (83.3%)
Animals 21 (87.5%) 3 (12.5%)
LOCATION OF TATTOO NO YES
Face 7   (25.9%) 20 (74.1%)
Hands 20 (74.1%) 7   (25.9%)
Arms 15 (55.6%) 12 (44.4%)
Chest 14 (51.9%) 13 (48.1%)
Legs 20 (74.1%)  7  (25.9%)
Feet 23 (85.2%)  4  (14.8%)
EMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF TATTOOS RITE OF PASSAGE,  BIRTH, ETC. OTHER CEREMONY NOT ASSOCIATED W/ CEREMONY
9   (56.3%) 2  (12.5%) 5  (31.3%)
PURPOSE OF TATTOOS NO YES
Decoration 14 (58.3%) 10 (41.7%)
Magical 15 (62.5%) 9   (37.5%)

10. Analyze the Results

11. Write the Report