This article investigates determinants of the couvade; the authors reexamine some of their earlier findings and also consider Broude’s (1988) response to their previous studies. Exclusive mother-infant sleeping arrangements, matrilocal residence, and “protest masculinity” (a concept suggested by Broude) were all found to be associated with the couvade. Father-salience in infancy, also suggested by Broude, was only marginally associated.

This article examines several possible correlates of the couvade. Results suggest that father presence, rather than the expected father absence, is significantly associated with the couvade.

This chapter discusses the predictors of the couvade and male circumcision ceremonies cross-culturally. New findings suggest relationships between these two variables and infant carrying practices, marital residence, and descent.

This article draws on psychoanalytic theory and a previous study by Whiting (1964) to test the relationship between parent-child sleeping arrangements, particularly the implied social distance of fathers, and the presence of circumcision for males. Circumcision is assumed to be a social correction for mother-oriented personality in sons.

This study advances the status envy hypothesis of sex identification to explain customs such as male initiation ceremonies and the couvade. Theory of sex identification is discussed; resource withholding, exclusive mother-child sleeping, patrilocality, father absence, female status, and initiation are all considered. Hypotheses are supported with empirical tests.

A study of the factors that predict extremely masculine behaviors and traits in men (conceptualized as protest masculinity in the status-envy and father-absence theories). Findings point to the important role of socialization for aggression as a mediating factor in the relationship between father's role and "protest masculinity."

This study examines possible correlates of the couvade. Results suggest that matri-residence, mother-infant sleeping arrangements, and low male salience all are associated with the couvade.

This study explores several correlates of interpersonal violence. Multiple regression analysis suggests that socialization for aggression in boys in late childhood is the strongest predictor of higher rates of homicide and assault. Path analysis suggests that socialization for aggression is a consequence, not a cause, of war.

This paper investigates ritual related to the female reproductive cycle. The author examines two types of ritual female pollution-avoidance ritual. meant to differentiate sex roles in a society, and male ritual (including couvade) associated with the female reproductive cycle, meant to minimize sex differentiation. Empirical analysis reveals several societal characteristics associated with each of these two types of ritual, suggesting that ritual can be used to encourage sex role rigidity or flexibility.

This article builds upon gender inequality theory to examine childhood gender inequality in preindustrial societies. Multivariate and cluster analysis are used.