Following are the collected hypotheses of students from York College.

I put any comments I made after the hypotheses in italics and bold print.

Some of the hypotheses are testable using pre-coded variables that were made by other researchers and published for the standard cross-cultural sample. You can find them by Variable Number, e.g., V120, V238, etc. in the Pre-Coded Variables book.

Some of the hypotheses are okay, but just not testable using typical ethnographic data.

Propositional Inventory by Student A

Ceniceros, Salvador. 1998. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. Aug: Vol. 186. P. 503-504.

Hypothesis: 
A very strong relationship exists between the number and types of tattoos and body piercing a person has and their involvement in Russian Roulette.

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. It also carries no explanation value.

Duncan, David F. 1989. MMPI Scores of Tattooed and Non-Tattooed Prisoners. Psychological Reports. 65: 685-686.

Hypothesis: 
No relationship exists between the presence of a tattoo and the presence of a personality disorder.

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. The hyp. is interesting but just not testable with hraf.

Grumet, Gerald W. 1983. Psychodynamic implications of tattoos. Amer. J. Orthopsychiat. 53:482-492.

Hypothesis: 
If we study individuals with tattoos then we can gain insight into his/her personality.

We may be able to test a variety of this, such as, “Societies that have tattooing should favor certain personality traits.”

Hage, Per., Hararv, Fran L, Milicie, Boika. 1996. Tattooing, Gender, and Social Stratification in Micro-Polynesia. J. Amer. Royal Anthro. Ins. 2: 335-350.

Hypotheses:

1. Differences in tattooing were associated with intrinsic differences in rank.

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

2. Where hypergamy led to the superior rank of sisters over brothers and a sacred sister complex, females were either not tattooed or were less tattooed than males.

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

3. Chiefly sanctity was associated with restrictions on tattooing. /in chiefly diarchies the scared ruler was untattooable. While the secular, executive ruler was tattooable and tattooed.

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

4. The combination of 2) and 3) produced non-tattooed couples at the head of chiefly.

We may be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

Houghton, Steven. Durkin, Kevin. Carroll, Annemaree. 1995. Children’s and Adolescent’s Awareness of the Physical and Mental Health Risks Associated with Tattooing: A Focus Group Study. Adolescence. 30: 971-988.

Hypothesis: 
Children’s awareness of the physical and mental health risks are associated with the increasing practice of tattooing.

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

Roe, Allan. Howell, Robert J. Payne, 1. Reed. 1974. Comparison of prison inmates with and without Juvenile Records. Psychological Reports. June. Vol. 34. P. 13151319.

Hypothesis: 
In general, the more criminal involvement a youngster and the longer the periods of incarcerations prior to 18, the higher should be the expectation of continued involvement in crime.

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

Sanders, Clinton. 1988. Marks of Mischief Becoming and Being Tattooed. Jan. Vol. 16. No. 4. P. 395 – 432.

Hypothesis: ??

Sanders, Clinton R. 1991. Memorial Decoration: Women, Tattooing, and the Meanings of Body Alteration. Michigan Quarterly Review. 30: 146-157.

Hypothesis: 
Tattoos have meanings across cultures.

I don’t think this statement accurately reflects the meaning of the above article. I suggest you read the article again and try to more accurately abstract the hypotheses. I suspect this paper will have some interesting hypotheses.

Singh, Deverdra. Bronstad, P. Mathew. 1997. Sex Differences in the Anatomical Locations of Human Body Scarification and Tattooing as a Function of Pathogen Prevalence. Evolution and Human Behavior. Vol. 18. P. 403-416.

Hypothesis: 
As pathogen seventy increases, so should permanent markings of body areas that are attended for evaluating attractiveness and mate quality.

We will be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

Tannenbaum, Nicola. 1987. Tattoos: Invulnerability and Power in Shan Cosmology. Amer. Ethnologist. 14: 693-711.

Hypothesis:

1. There is a relationship between Buddhism and animism.

Not related to tattoos.

2. Tattoos are used as symbols of power and social stratification in Shan culture.

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

Propositional Inventory by Student B

1) There is an association between erotic piercing and homosexuality, sadomasochism, bondage, fetishism, and tattoos (Burich, 1983).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

2) By reviewing the history and practice of tattooing there will be psychologically relevant themes, which will provide analysts with additional diagnostic information (Grumet, 1983).

This is why we are doing this project. What else does Grumet say?

3) Tattooing is an attempt to acquire identity (Edgerton, Dingman, 1963).

We may be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

4) Prostitutes who have tattoos do so because of strong masochist-exhibitionistic drives (Parry, 1934).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

5) They (tattoos) can often be understood self-constructive and adorning efforts rather than prematurely subsumed as mutilatory and destructive acts (Martin, 1997).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

6) Tattooed prisoners would be lower on sex guilt than non-tattooed prisoners (Mosher, et. al, 1967).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

7) Tattooed prisoners would have more feminine interests than the non-tattooed prisoners (Mosher et. al, 1967).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

8) In our culture persons who have certain types of self-concepts will be more likely to tattoo themselves than persons with other self-concepts (Burma, 1959).

We should be able to test a variety of this hypothesis using pre-coded variables, such as societies with tattoos will be of a certain type, e.g., collective, or favor certain personality traits.

9) Inmates with juvenile records were more likely to be tattooed (Roe et. al, 1974).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

10) Psychological analysis shows that deep, unrevealed motives, particularly sexual ones, were responsible for the call of the tattoo (Bromberg, 1972).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

11) Tattooing fulfills a psychic need in the ego development of those persons who run into difficulty synthesizing their identity (Hamburger, 1963).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

Propositional Inventory by Student C

1) There is a significant correlation between the presence of tattoos and delinquency (Burma 1959; Measey 1971; Verberne, 1969).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

2) Extraversion and introversion are products of cortical arousal. (Eysenck and Eysenck 1967).

Not related to tattoos.

3) People with tattoos are more likely to be extraverted than introverted. (John H. Copes and Graig J. Forsyth, 1993).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

4) Tattooed subjects were more often group dependent, more rebellious, emotional, and active (Verberne, 1969).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

5) There were a significant correlation between extroversion and delinquency. (Eysenck, 1977).

Not related to tattoos.

6) Delinquency might be a result (as is the tattoo) of the extrovert’s low arousal level and their need for stimulation, instead of being caused by a personality disorder (Eysenck, 1977).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

7) Tattooed female Borstal inmates were more criminal in their attitudes, showed more aggressive behavior, scored higher on tension and anxiety, and were more masculine in their sexual orientation and behavior than were nontattooed girls (Taylor, 1968).

We may be able to test a variety of this hypothesis using pre-coded variables, such as female dominance would be more prevalent in societies where females are tattooed.

8) Tattooed prisoners showed significantly higher barrier scores on the Holtzman Inkblot Test and lower body cathexis scores on the Secord-Jourard Body Cathexis Scale (Mosher, et al., 1967).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

9) There is a 90% rejection rate for neuropsychiatric difficulties at an induction center among men with tattoos of LOVE and TRUE LOVE inscribed across their fingers. (Ferguson-Rayport et al., 1955).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

10) In Western culture pattern there might be a greater likelihood of tattooed persons having an abnormal personality than persons who are not tattooed (Wells, 1964).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

11) Over-compensation for homosexual inclinations might be one underlying mechanism in the tattooed group (Mckerracher, Watson, 1969).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

12) Psychopathic or social or emotional maladjustment was significantly higher among the tattooed than the non-tattooed (____, 1969).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

13) Extremely unstable social histories and physical violence?s were recorded among the offenses committed by the tattooed men than the non-tattooed (Mckerracher et al., 1966).

We may be able to test a variety of this hypothesis using pre-coded variables, such as societies with tattoos are more warlike.

14) “Becoming tattoo is a highly social act” that is experimented with close associates (Sanders, 1998: 404, 406).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

15) Tattoos identify males in a tribe (Bonierbale-Branchereau and Valero, 1986).

This statement is not clear. What is meant by “identify males.”

Propositional Inventory by Student D

1) Tattoos found on a group of men admitted to the State Penitentiary (Haines and Hufftnan,1958.)

This is not a hypothesis; it has no predictive value, e.g., if A, then B.

2) In our culture, persons who have certain types of self concepts will be more likely to tattoo themselves than persons with other self concepts.” (Bruma, 1959)

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

3) A new and novel addition to correctional institution rehabilitative program; notably the plastic surgery intervention to reduce or eliminate disfiguring features whether in the form of scars, tattoos, or structural abnormalities” (Holt, et. al, 1967).

This is not a hypothesis; it has no predictive value, e.g., if A, then B.

4) A flaw at some stage of ego formation might be revealed by a study of age at onset of tattooing, as well as the nature of the tattoos themselves (Hamburger, 1963)

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

5) Prisoners who were tattooed under the influence of a friend and were usually intoxicated (Walter, 1935).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

Propositional Inventory by Student F

Tattooed prisoners would have:

1) Higher barrier scores on the Holtzman Inkblot Test

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

2) Give more body associations to Secord’s homonymn Word Association Test

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

3) Feel more positively about their body on the Secord-Jourard Body Cathexis Scale

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

4) Be lower on sex-guilt

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

5) Have more feminine interests than the non-tattooed prisoners (Mosher, Oliver and Dolgan 1969).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

6) A significant amount of tattooing occurs among delinquents (Burma, 1959).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

7) Tattoos can serve as marks of disaffiliation with law?abiding society and of affiliation with outlaw subcultures (Grumet, 1983).

This hypothesis is probably not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF.

Propositional Inventory by Student G

1. There is no real deviance with prisoners that have tattoos compared to prisoners that do not have tattoos (Duncan, 1989).

This hypothesis is probably not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

2) Youngsters involved in criminal activity and incarcerated for longer periods of time before age 18 have a higher expectation to continue in crime when they get older (Howell, 1974).

This hypothesis is probably not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

3) Tattooing and body piercing reflects or predicts self-injury or violence towards others (Ceniceros, 1998).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables. Perhaps societies that have tattoos will have more violence, feuding, etc.?

4) Studying people with tattoos provides a basis to learn about their personality (Grumet, 1983).

This is an assumption of our project, but not really worthwhile as a hypothesis.

Hypothesis A

Tattooing is a painful process. Societies tend to be consistent, so one would expect that if pain is inflicted in one realm, it will be inflicted in others, such as corporal punishment of children.

Cross-Cultural: Thus, if the above is true, one could expect that societies with tattooing will also tend to have higher corporal punishment of boys and girls.

Table 1. Cross-tabulation of Corporal Punishment of Boys in Early Childhood and Tattooing.

Notice above that the societies with lower levels of corporal punishment for boys (1-5) seem fairly evenly distributed between having tattooing present and absent. However, the societies with high levels of corporal punishment (6-9) almost always have tattooing. This suggests that there is a trend consistent with the hypothesis. The statistics that test for a linear association are shown in “Symmetric Measures.” Since the variables are ordinal, the appropriate measures of association are gamma (.463) and Spearman’s correlation (.328). The coefficients of association are moderate and indicate a positive association (the more corporal punishment, the more tattooing is present. The significance levels are .058 and .076 respectively. Although these significance levels are marginally significant, we are entitled to halve the probabilities since the association is in the directed predicted. Thus, the probability that the results are due to chance is .029  (29 chances out of 1000) using gamma and .038 (38 chances out of 1000) using Spearman’s rho. Thus with regard to corporal punishment of boys we can reject the null hypothesis that the results are due to sampling error, and we accept the theoretical hypothesis that tattooing and corporal punishment of boys are positively related.

Notice above that the societies with lower levels of corporal punishment for girls (1-5) seem fairly evenly distributed between having tattooing present and absent. However, the societies with high levels of corporal punishment (6-9) almost always have tattooing. This suggests that there is a trend consistent with the hypothesis. The statistics that test for a linear association are shown in “Symmetric Measures.” Since the variables are ordinal, the appropriate measures of association are gamma (.506) and Spearman’s correlation (.367). The coefficients of association are moderate and indicate a positive association (the more corporal punishment, the more tattooing is present. The significance levels are .037 and .050 respectively. We are entitled to halve the probabilities since the association is in the directed predicted. Thus, the probability that the results are due to chance is .015  (15 chances out of 1000) using gamma and .019 (19 chances out of 1000) using Spearman’s rho. Thus with regard to corporal punishment of girls we can reject the null hypothesis that the results are due to sampling error, and we accept the theoretical hypothesis that tattooing and corporal punishment of  girls are positively related.

Hypothesis B

1.Tattoos are associated with less sexual guilt.

Cross-Cultural: If the above is true, one would expect that societies with tattooing would have more sexual expression for adolescent boys.

Sexual Expression in Adolescent boys and girls  – Encouragement of sexual behavior, taking into account its frequency, emotional intensity, importance, and variety (including range in partners) in adolescence.  Heterosexual intercourse is the principal criterion, but heterosexual foreplay, masturbation, homosexuality, sexual jokes and exposing the genitals were also considered

Table 2. Cross-tab Between Tattooing and Adolescent Boys Sexual Expression

The results in Table 2 indicated a very weak association between the presence of tattooing and boys sexual expression.  If one looks at the Tattoo Present column, there does not appear to be any pattern between tattooing and sexual expression.  The measure of the strength of association, Gamma is very low (-.235) and the probability the results are due to random sampling error is .379 or 379 chances out of 100.  Thus we have to accept the null hypothesis that these two variables are not related and the hypothesis is not supported.

2.Tattoos are associated with less sexual guilt.

Cross-Cultural: If the above is true, one would expect that societies with tattooing would have more sexual expression for adolescent boys.

Table 3.  T-Tests Between Tattooing and Sexual Non-restraint in Adolescents

Range of Sexual Non-Restraint:  1=Strictly Prohibited to 9=Condoned & not punished

The higher score on sexual non-restraint means that non-restraint is condoned, e.g., more sexual expression is allowed.  For both adolescent boys and girls the scores are higher when tattooing is absent (7.20 for boys and 6.70 for girls).  Sexual expression scores are lower when tattooing is present.  This goes in the opposite direction of the hypothesis.  The differences in means between the two groups is also not significant (.105 for boys and .216 for girls), which means that the differences in means between the tattooed and non-tattooed societies could be the result of chance sampling error.  Thus we have to accept the null hypothesis.

Example of text with references to tattooing from the Copper Inuit Culture File in the eHRAF World Cultures database.

Overlap of cultures names with the OWC Code* from HRAF’s Probability Sample Files (PSF)** and the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample.

Student A

Student B

Student C

Student D

Student E

Student F

Student G

Editor’s Note regarding OWC and PSF

*Outline of World Cultures (OWC)

HRAF indexes the information in its collection by culture (or tradition) and subject. OWC is an acronym for the Outline of World Cultures, a systematic listing of the cultures of the world. An OWC code or OWC culture code is a four-character alphanumeric identification derived from the classification scheme presented in the Outline of World Cultures (OWC), developed by George P. Murdock more than 50 years ago. Each distinct culture in the list of cultures covered in eHRAF is assigned an OWC code, and text on that culture has been indexed using that OWC. The first letter of each OWC code represents a region of the world.

A=Asia
E=Europe
M=Middle East and northern Africa
N=North America
O=Oceania
S=South America

For example, the Santal is given the OWC code AW42 which identifies this culture as being located in Asia (A) and India (W). A printed version of the OWC (6th revised edition, 1983) is available from HRAF. In the eHRAF Collection of Ethnography the OWC for the cultures in eHRAF can be found in Browse Cultures. Not every culture in the OWC is in the eHRAF Collection of Ethnography.

**Probability Sample File

 The 60-culture Probability Sample, now complete in eHRAF, was designed by HRAF to provide primary descriptive information on a representative sample of the world’s traditional and peasant cultures. After establishing a list of cultures that met certain criteria for eligibility, one case was chosen randomly from each of 60 culture areas. Among the criteria for eligibility were the ethnographer’s length of stay in the field, knowledge of the native language, and number of pages of ethnography.  This sample is used for both teaching and systematic cross-cultural comparisons. The PSF cultures are located in the eHRAF Collection of Ethnography database.

Tattooing
1. Absent
2. Present

Sex of Individuals Tattooed
1. males only
2. males and females
3. females only

Age When Tattooed
Tattooed at Puberty or initiation  0=No 1=Present
Tattooed for War or Hunting Success  0=No 1=Present

Rank Differences of Tattooed Persons
1. No differences in rank
2. High ranked individual are not tattooed
3. High ranked individuals only are tattooed

Objects that are tattooed (More than one may apply)
Object1: Designs or markings  0=No 1=Yes
Object2: Animals 0=No 1=Yes

Location of tattoos (More than one location may apply)
Locate1: Face 0=No 1=Yes
Locate2: Hands 0=No 1=Yes
Locate3: Arms 0=No 1=Yes
Locate4: Chest 0=No 1=Yes
Locate5: Legs 0=No 1=Yes
Locate6: Feet 0=No 1=Yes

Emic Significance of Tattoos
1. Given at a rite of passage ceremony (Birth, Initiation, Marriage, etc.)
2. Given at some other ceremony
3. Not associated with a ceremony

Purpose of Tattoos
Decoration 0=No 1=Present
Magical 0=No 1=Present
Marker of Membership or Rank 0=No 1=Present

Society Name: ____________________________________________

HRAF’s OWC Code: _________SCCR No.:_______

Tattooing
1. present ________________
2. absent _________________

Sex of Individuals Tattooed
1. males only
_______________________________________________________

   2. males and females
_______________________________________________________
3. females only _______________________________________________________

Age When Tattooed
1. Puberty or at initiation _______________________________________________________
2. Marriage ______________________________________________________
3. Other (explain in detail) _______________________________________________________

Rank Differences of Tattooed Persons
1. No differences in rank _______________________________________________________
2. High ranked individual are not tattooed ______________________________________________________
3. High ranked individuals only are tattooed ______________________________________________________

Objects that are tattooed (More than one may apply)
1. Designs or markings _______________________________________________________
2. Animals _______________________________________________________
3. Spirits _______________________________________________________
4. Anthropomorphic characters _______________________________________________________

Location of tattoos (More than one location may apply)
1. Face _______________________________________________________
2. Hands _______________________________________________________
3. Arms _______________________________________________________
4. Chest _______________________________________________________
5. Legs _______________________________________________________
6. Feet _______________________________________________________
7. Other (Explain) _______________________________________________________

Emic Significance of Tattoos
1. Given at a rite of passage ceremony (Birth, Initiation, Marriage, etc.) _______________________________________________________
2. Given at some other ceremony _______________________________________________________
3. Not associated with a ceremony _______________________________________________________

Purpose of Tattoos
1. For decoration only _______________________________________________________
2. Magical purpose _______________________________________________________
3. Marker of membership or rank _______________________________________________________

Key

The Key explains the values in Table 1; Table 2; Table 3; Table 4; Table 5; and Table 6

Table 1

Table 2

Table 3

Table 4

Table 5

Table 6